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Wind Energy_Fundamentals, Resource Analysis and Economics
& Z0 n1 g Z) I$ ?3 E# [% [Contents+ u4 z5 x9 q" p0 r4 H' k: x5 Q* u
Preface …………………………………………………..................... VII+ K- a# W! [7 L( [ q) q l* T
1 Introduction …………………………………………………………1/ v1 i1 M9 y9 Y( t6 W3 i
1.1 History of wind energy………………………………………….3 g- k! i$ Y6 p+ r7 Y3 D, h- O- L
1.2 Current status and future prospects……………………………...7
: }1 p* n4 N1 c U9 z6 \# TReferences ……………………………………………………………86 a% u( s; R, Q, \# `1 p
2 Basics of Wind Energy Conversion ………………………………..11
! w f7 c n$ P( c: l! H4 _0 V2.1 Power available in the wind spectra …………………………….11
3 n2 T/ R% b ^3 Q2.2 Wind turbine power and torque ………………………………... 14
; ?* m6 P8 r9 z! H1 j* Y2.3 Classification of wind turbines ………………………………… 16
; j l2 t% E" E8 X2.3.1 Horizontal axis wind turbines ……………………………17
; \/ W5 a- J# W3 s2.3.2 Vertical axis wind turbines ……………………………… 18
9 c4 v' M" m& Y/ h+ @Darrieus rotor …………………………………………….19. l5 v0 e' I. e7 P# Q
Savonius rotor ……………………………………………20. C- D" {( D0 q% f. F
Musgrove rotor ………………………………………….. 21
0 ?$ [+ K, _% R2 o. ^2.4 Characteristics of wind rotors ………………………………….. 22. ^/ N$ p& E6 F; z& D3 f: J" p
2.5 Aerodynamics of wind turbines ………………………………...23, R! t4 N$ r5 l
2.5.1 Airfoil ……………………………………........................ 239 q% Y. W' M4 T( P7 y, v9 S
2.5.2 Aerodynamic theories ……………………………………27
/ M c+ Z/ K7 w# N0 IAxial momentum theory …………………………………27
, ~. ?/ \+ k' K+ ~Blade element theory …………………………………….31
( x+ a S8 \) `3 T @" ^Strip theory ………………………………………………33
* M/ Z$ P. y8 R% t& s. m9 H2.6 Rotor design …………………………………………………….34
& M* x; P1 h7 q6 P2.7 Rotor performance ……………………………………………... 40 r+ Y8 i: c& F! D" g
References ……………………………………………………………42
# ]/ h8 |1 R$ W- ~$ N$ u9 z3 Analysis of wind regimes……………………………………………45
, W8 J* U( V2 F# O2 T D j' a3.1 The wind………………………………………………………... 46
+ n' V0 j) M' ?8 a* o% a2 L3.1.1 Local effects………………………………………………474 [3 K- N% x5 g; {- C, p8 c
3.1.2 Wind shear………………………………………………..47
/ O3 ^3 l! H9 ?- E7 Y3.1.3 Turbulence………………………………………………..50
( t7 ?* E) ]- v! p5 j3.1.4 Acceleration effect………………………………………..51
8 b3 ~$ h8 ]( T, I; L' h; ?& b) O: e3.1.5 Time variation…………………………………………….51' g- G9 d J; i7 d- C
3.2 Measurement of wind……………………………………………53
E5 `8 C2 h% D) G, Z1 X5 W5 d+ S3.2.1 Ecological indicators…………………………………….. 53
+ Z, C& c' h. z7 ?3.2.2 Anemometers……………………………………………..55
4 f! B7 U) w* x/ F9 ?/ f/ r" bCup anemometer………………………………………….55$ `5 { r d e) w* P
Propeller anemometer…………………………………….56
1 B' J. ]# X. n; M6 T0 I( \1 hPressure plate anemometer……………………………….566 p, E; D2 C4 y
Pressure tube anemometers……………………………… 57! [& `$ i. t! W
Sonic anemometer……………………………………….. 58: t( _2 p5 B' n1 C2 q! H& ]" W
3.2.3 Wind direction……………………………………………61
6 a+ w: M/ ~ m2 v0 a6 v3.3 Analysis of wind data……………………………………………61; e. G& I- S/ z$ d W2 l, c
3.3.1 Average wind speed………………………………………63
0 G/ @0 W1 h% U# l+ l' q6 V$ _: c3.3.2 Distribution of wind velocity……………………………..64% U4 E# L" o m. A
3.3.3 Statistical models for wind data analysis…………………68
1 ~% s; O T9 a- Z) PWeibull distribution………………………………………687 V7 ^: z; {# Z' X" _
Rayleigh distribution…………………………………….. 78$ B+ U# {: }) F7 p( A( m3 ]
3.4 Energy estimation of wind regimes…………………………….. 80# y. U) Y0 u, ~2 A$ U7 e+ V6 p5 n7 v, D
3.4.1 Weibull based approach…………………………………..80: }# X o9 e; m% ~) V1 r Y: X2 w; u/ \
3.4.2 Rayleigh based approach…………………………………84
0 D7 x. n+ p2 I/ e! g( _, kReferences…………………………………………………………….88/ T: [: D; f& o: _
4 Wind energy conversion systems………………………………….. 89
# y1 C \1 [0 \+ ]3 r9 `/ e4.1 Wind electric generators………………………………………... 90% |" V0 }( n" ^
4.1.1 Tower……………………………………………………..91& t8 p) x* ?* j/ A3 T) Q0 {
4.1.2 Rotor……………………………………………………...96; D) L( b! f n" S
4.1.3 Gear box…………………………………………………. 99
r. l; Z0 a ]" t3 O4.1.4 Power regulation………………………………………….101# J9 C8 \$ C+ j$ O; s: X7 C2 g
4.1.5 Safety brakes…………………………………………….. 105' i/ F. V. }" i, C
4.1.6 Generator…………………………………………………107
3 `" Z# e% Q1 O& w3 |) IInduction generator……………………………………….107
3 d" x4 ]/ f* U, Y ASynchronous generator…………………………………... 110
4 Z; ]; l3 g* M9 m& h4.1.7 Fixed and variable speed operations…………………….. 1129 f# M( ]4 d' X4 [7 m! j, S' n
4.1.8 Grid integration………………………………………….. 115
* U) L9 ]- B* b# g+ j( O4.2 Wind farms………………………………………………………117% Z/ m! | z& A
4.3 Offshore wind farms……………………………………………. 1219 y' d: O j2 R- A% B) ^
4.4 Wind pumps……………………………………………………..1243 B+ ~/ V+ p- a; d" e6 {
4.4.1 Wind powered piston pumps……………………………..1261 t8 v1 \. A1 n- E' p
4.4.2 Limitations of wind driven piston pumps………………...129
; i! J8 G% i( G- i8 qThe hysteresis effect……………………………………...1295 o, I4 ]' B6 _% ~! C
Mismatch between the rotor and pump characteristics….. 132
" g, t% @% g+ c6 u) ~' e0 EDynamic loading of the pump’s lift rod………………… 133
' ^8 ~# i0 i1 C( I1 l# [: Y, P# d! \4.4.3 Double acting pump………………………………………134, f c- _* q/ u7 V/ p/ Z
4.4.4 Wind driven roto-dynamic pumps………………………..1358 I8 c( f: M* n" d# H
4.4.5 Wind electric pumps……………………………………...1405 x9 n9 D1 }' C* Y2 n( R
References…………………………………………………………….142/ j) I5 Z2 y2 @4 S- V
5 Performance of wind energy conversion systems………………… 145
9 i! T- O2 W2 {5 Z0 K; T/ \/ ~8 |5.1 Power curve of the wind turbine………………………………...1467 j7 s. a& `" P3 s
5.2 Energy generated by the wind turbine…………………………..150
- H' M* A3 q( h# ~) T6 J( O M5.2.1 Weibull based approach…………………………………. 150
% W: Q8 r$ H& W/ d5 Z5.2.2 Rayleigh based approach…………………………………153
. u' b" N" e: m6 R, E6 a" {5.3 Capacity factor…………………………………………………..155) C( \6 J8 J ]% R: u
5.4 Matching the turbine with wind regime…………………………159
5 R: l! m& {" J e8 Y; | x5.5 Performance of wind powered pumping systems………………. 164/ C7 I( @7 O* `$ A& r* }8 A h% {
5.5.1 Wind driven piston pumps………………………………. 164/ v. N6 A- Q; ]8 Z6 L. Y; L
5.5.2 Wind driven roto-dynamic pumps………………………. 1712 z7 P% k. C+ Q& ?7 ^, n I
5.5.3 Wind electric pumping systems…………………………. 175
5 Z( @2 f7 r; n7 DReferences…………………………………………………………….1778 o0 q! ^" M1 \0 Y
6 Wind energy and Environment……………………………………. 179) X# } [" A' U- O3 K
6.1 Environmental benefits of wind energy…………………………180
6 F0 X( u( L5 `5 |. c, I6.2 Life cycle analysis……………………………………………… 182
; E6 v9 D% d1 j0 Y0 l) H0 D2 X& G+ u6.2.1 Net energy analysis…………………………….…………185. e s8 {( u6 b3 W- b3 m5 j
6.2.2 Life cycle emission……………………………………….1897 g4 J( U6 c. S- C6 C; w2 F
6.3 Environmental problems of wind energy………………………..193! u: r* ]. K2 H4 }* b0 \" R
6.3.1 Avian issues………………………………………………193
0 ?3 s; t% k" a, Q1 @; L V6.3.2 Noise emission……………………………………………196
D* |9 u0 b0 h8 o0 _6.3.3 Visual impact……………………………………………..202! B+ |: k" G- } Q4 t
References…………………………………………………………….205
' o/ Q" i2 s4 @) }7 Economics of wind energy…………………………………………. 209
! v- N, s- P. e7 M* S7.1 Factors influencing the wind energy economics……………….. 210; Q# ~" w: P7 H) L$ ?
7.1.1 Site specific factors……………………………………… 2104 g. s7 G* k5 z8 J; e( H1 [
7.1.2 Machine parameters………………………………………212& E! M3 f% q5 M
7.1.3 Energy market…………………………………………….213
- x4 x* A. p3 b0 {( i7.1.4 Incentives and exemptions………………………………..214
0 W; V+ K9 M. ]" x7.2 The ‘present worth’ approach…………………………………... 215
- _" [ V( I7 T& { n3 |4 f7.3 Cost of wind energy……………………………………………..220
: b u1 r( J1 M; }; ?0 ^; g' O7.3.1 Initial investment…………………………………………221
/ @7 C% |5 Z& B$ B. j7 y7.3.2 Operation and maintenance costs………………………... 222$ @' O: j. i0 ^; m! B0 H
7.2.3 Present value of annual costs……………………………..2236 `9 e+ |- j& S, E. j4 c
7.4 Benefits of wind energy…………………………………………225
. H4 m9 j( e* E& M, r. V( I4 \% G# r7.5 Yardsticks of economic merit…………………………………... 2272 y* J3 I m' X! n! b
7.5.1 Net present value………………………………………… 227$ z9 l! v; N* k+ c/ M
7.5.2 Benefit cost ratio………………………………………… 2285 d7 l4 t8 W8 o+ I
7.5.3 Pay back period………………………………………….. 229% B2 y5 q: {5 J* h/ D: z
7.5.4 Internal rate of return……………………………………..2302 a2 n* u. E( {* j
7.6 Tax deduction due to investment depreciation…………………. 233
$ P( @7 y$ y6 e: u4 Q. l4 iReferences…………………………………………………………….236# P5 U% v) _8 A; _+ S0 @
Appendix…………………………………………………………….. 237
$ F* \! O' u. o4 {1 b- h% CIndex………………………………………………………………….241
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Wind Energy_Fundamentals, Resource Analysis and Economics.part1.rar
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发表于 2009-2-17 13:33:10