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Wind Energy_Fundamentals, Resource Analysis and Economics
/ ~) h$ q6 h! b; j- g) n! }Contents# q1 r; i, L; c$ ]$ L( i2 w
Preface …………………………………………………..................... VII( r9 `* g3 f9 B) }8 t* c4 s
1 Introduction …………………………………………………………1
. B5 {/ \8 z/ X1.1 History of wind energy………………………………………….3
3 M8 E% R$ N& } b3 o( ?' |1.2 Current status and future prospects……………………………...73 i! @5 s! y' o! Q6 \
References ……………………………………………………………8
7 N+ E2 `/ q* ~+ @& Q0 H0 U1 ?: B2 Basics of Wind Energy Conversion ………………………………..118 H( h- S: s l2 ?+ ?5 X! s* Y
2.1 Power available in the wind spectra …………………………….11
+ i o0 f% A0 r1 W" y3 t5 M2.2 Wind turbine power and torque ………………………………... 14$ {0 ^% {( T7 o% \) U8 A3 I
2.3 Classification of wind turbines ………………………………… 16, n4 U! ^! K9 x* I' I
2.3.1 Horizontal axis wind turbines ……………………………17
4 {8 j1 D: r( ^2.3.2 Vertical axis wind turbines ……………………………… 18
j, ?, _8 ?' p# `* l1 O T$ U hDarrieus rotor …………………………………………….19
! w m* Y% s8 S/ O% O6 GSavonius rotor ……………………………………………20* l' O0 w1 y6 K1 G" {4 A* a- H
Musgrove rotor ………………………………………….. 21
# N7 e/ G1 K ~6 |8 h$ P% |$ c$ X2.4 Characteristics of wind rotors ………………………………….. 22
2 x& X; k/ f. q- t) T+ h2.5 Aerodynamics of wind turbines ………………………………...23
) C1 e1 z8 ^, X6 _7 j0 R2.5.1 Airfoil ……………………………………........................ 23
/ L T1 O# e; C. B2.5.2 Aerodynamic theories ……………………………………27
8 n7 n) _! [9 P' EAxial momentum theory …………………………………27' E6 ]( S- B0 `1 z. f& l+ B$ w& D
Blade element theory …………………………………….311 } @* G7 }# t1 b" n8 W# O
Strip theory ………………………………………………33
1 @* F# r c" g% }' {) p7 r' o& G2.6 Rotor design …………………………………………………….347 S S, E1 ?: b& K; ?
2.7 Rotor performance ……………………………………………... 402 l. N5 ~* p( `# m" N
References ……………………………………………………………42: r: @- w/ Z2 o& k
3 Analysis of wind regimes……………………………………………45 \& |9 u% p* u- }. I h4 F
3.1 The wind………………………………………………………... 46
7 O% i7 H# t# H* O# `3.1.1 Local effects………………………………………………47
6 i" [' q. ~, @7 z2 y3.1.2 Wind shear………………………………………………..47* X& L. ]' ]5 `, c8 Y4 S
3.1.3 Turbulence………………………………………………..50
4 ?5 b7 e1 j, @% S3 [3.1.4 Acceleration effect………………………………………..51
4 ?6 j! `5 a& x T1 j3.1.5 Time variation…………………………………………….51
' `) S5 P* W9 u5 n3.2 Measurement of wind……………………………………………53
; Z/ z# V: ?- p9 T" I3.2.1 Ecological indicators…………………………………….. 53# M1 e$ _/ g9 K, F
3.2.2 Anemometers……………………………………………..55, @1 r4 k5 [$ Y1 u9 g
Cup anemometer………………………………………….55
9 B. R$ q: `2 x3 pPropeller anemometer…………………………………….56
3 m9 O% a; v% Z f* m) \* lPressure plate anemometer……………………………….56+ y* K6 D% }) y$ _; f6 E7 e' q
Pressure tube anemometers……………………………… 57# M5 v+ \% C5 L
Sonic anemometer……………………………………….. 58
- |. m& K4 d# l5 g3.2.3 Wind direction……………………………………………61
5 f2 U$ M B- B8 q1 E3.3 Analysis of wind data……………………………………………61 [, \& X7 ~) _
3.3.1 Average wind speed………………………………………633 ~% R4 k0 `6 `" K y* Y; P* I8 [
3.3.2 Distribution of wind velocity……………………………..648 @7 I. l/ W/ W0 R; Z5 m
3.3.3 Statistical models for wind data analysis…………………68
& U+ t8 |+ P f0 e& T1 j% CWeibull distribution………………………………………68 s* t% C5 Q6 V: T0 ]1 g$ i$ g
Rayleigh distribution…………………………………….. 786 e, h0 w3 r, P
3.4 Energy estimation of wind regimes…………………………….. 80! l. P+ G! t: L! ^0 p& Q
3.4.1 Weibull based approach…………………………………..809 B6 M( {2 _0 d
3.4.2 Rayleigh based approach…………………………………84
, D, j+ }! q' u/ tReferences…………………………………………………………….88: e% F' C6 ~. Q3 j; ]7 N! O
4 Wind energy conversion systems………………………………….. 897 P+ ? ^/ _& @% |9 _. p! a
4.1 Wind electric generators………………………………………... 90
( k' j9 T( w, r8 ~5 W. c, L4.1.1 Tower……………………………………………………..91
1 B; r$ s9 c3 w7 a* U+ K/ P8 l2 k7 t4.1.2 Rotor……………………………………………………...964 G9 v9 S/ ^0 q& ~' @
4.1.3 Gear box…………………………………………………. 99; p2 a% F, T6 [# k7 B5 d
4.1.4 Power regulation………………………………………….101: p2 @ F6 H9 B- t+ @/ m
4.1.5 Safety brakes…………………………………………….. 105
" d' y: \* Q, F3 r4.1.6 Generator…………………………………………………107
: X8 Z8 v: O5 ]4 m! dInduction generator……………………………………….1071 b, v' a V1 a7 n$ \
Synchronous generator…………………………………... 110
# n( {1 H( U, [" E4.1.7 Fixed and variable speed operations…………………….. 1128 A6 {) U5 n) V: ~2 O3 M2 @/ ^% J
4.1.8 Grid integration………………………………………….. 115
, L( x* t! n8 S4.2 Wind farms………………………………………………………117+ a( j- f' L2 Q* Q) q* _0 i
4.3 Offshore wind farms……………………………………………. 121
2 S0 G) d/ t G4 I% q: C4.4 Wind pumps……………………………………………………..124# ]0 N8 q% ~* h# V1 t- g& c
4.4.1 Wind powered piston pumps……………………………..126) E: q" y) }4 g* p) M- W6 V: L" r
4.4.2 Limitations of wind driven piston pumps………………...129
5 t. H5 I" B2 t, n# \% _, O% JThe hysteresis effect……………………………………...129
5 @/ q2 f" S2 Q3 @! V/ p- NMismatch between the rotor and pump characteristics….. 132
5 ~2 Q1 e8 D- R- u$ kDynamic loading of the pump’s lift rod………………… 133
. r; s& @$ e" V- y1 t3 x+ G$ k4.4.3 Double acting pump………………………………………134
B6 i% S+ ?, j* s) S# Y1 p( o0 g7 m4.4.4 Wind driven roto-dynamic pumps………………………..135
" w N2 n) r: q4.4.5 Wind electric pumps……………………………………...140* m9 t" B8 }0 e# F5 e
References…………………………………………………………….1427 k, ^* l' ~4 `- x, |) d H/ \
5 Performance of wind energy conversion systems………………… 145
" w! Q! k' Q0 r2 r8 l6 m3 R4 ~5.1 Power curve of the wind turbine………………………………...1469 m1 k; i& L) w9 Q" t
5.2 Energy generated by the wind turbine…………………………..150
/ N; [% }/ ] J6 S5.2.1 Weibull based approach…………………………………. 150
9 O# |# O; F* q8 ~+ ^* i5.2.2 Rayleigh based approach…………………………………1531 W5 N0 f0 y$ N2 H6 e7 S0 f
5.3 Capacity factor…………………………………………………..155
( M9 b1 n) h0 c. Y% N5.4 Matching the turbine with wind regime…………………………1599 X* `* c5 ]# o5 {( k
5.5 Performance of wind powered pumping systems………………. 164) ?4 F( _0 X! U( e4 e3 y1 Z, T
5.5.1 Wind driven piston pumps………………………………. 1649 g& c0 Y P/ b' h5 \4 y9 l
5.5.2 Wind driven roto-dynamic pumps………………………. 1715 B/ n/ y+ R$ p8 r
5.5.3 Wind electric pumping systems…………………………. 175
8 g( |, A% F* A$ AReferences…………………………………………………………….177
. Y- ~% R2 ]) H; B6 Wind energy and Environment……………………………………. 179# ~5 R; t/ Z) W
6.1 Environmental benefits of wind energy…………………………180
6 N7 K9 G: a6 n+ ?3 V6.2 Life cycle analysis……………………………………………… 182
4 W' q3 I5 t! W2 Z) C9 {& j6.2.1 Net energy analysis…………………………….…………185
7 c0 ~1 R3 n8 P/ _% j6.2.2 Life cycle emission……………………………………….189" E- Y! _) K1 ~' T9 m9 f
6.3 Environmental problems of wind energy………………………..193
, U, w1 D i- [7 e1 v S: g6.3.1 Avian issues………………………………………………193$ h2 R( L: i0 m. U6 Q8 C1 y
6.3.2 Noise emission……………………………………………196
7 ?2 o, t* w2 ~6.3.3 Visual impact……………………………………………..202! k, F& o- v0 P6 S; R. y3 I0 V1 O
References…………………………………………………………….2057 U; k: H+ o$ R: X' N
7 Economics of wind energy…………………………………………. 209
! l3 T# k) R( L9 V7.1 Factors influencing the wind energy economics……………….. 210
7 K) q! a, k0 h+ P1 ]( \; S+ I: z7.1.1 Site specific factors……………………………………… 2103 {# p! h2 \. V/ v% K: E
7.1.2 Machine parameters………………………………………212( s( m- p* z' n& V( d6 |& N
7.1.3 Energy market…………………………………………….213
) L3 Z& h% A s+ e$ b. u. i% H7.1.4 Incentives and exemptions………………………………..214& y g; a# y0 ~2 `. p% f
7.2 The ‘present worth’ approach…………………………………... 215
8 E! H. G6 ?4 G$ o# F7.3 Cost of wind energy……………………………………………..220
% U9 [& _3 L! n: ?( C% O7.3.1 Initial investment…………………………………………2219 z, ~9 U& K3 ^ m
7.3.2 Operation and maintenance costs………………………... 222
7 J. H# `: [. d% r7.2.3 Present value of annual costs……………………………..223* p( l8 P1 o' |4 F; ?0 V6 r+ Q* z" A
7.4 Benefits of wind energy…………………………………………225
/ o4 d8 @8 }3 H- o9 u0 ^7.5 Yardsticks of economic merit…………………………………... 227# p* J. ~/ H/ V% S: ]5 p# d, i
7.5.1 Net present value………………………………………… 2277 G; t. l, I* P
7.5.2 Benefit cost ratio………………………………………… 2287 R3 j1 c# @$ l/ R1 }7 _0 H; X
7.5.3 Pay back period………………………………………….. 229, ]; E! y0 b/ m5 K- e; o
7.5.4 Internal rate of return……………………………………..230 o0 a# y8 C1 a+ ?
7.6 Tax deduction due to investment depreciation…………………. 233
" ]4 Q5 o$ v) I* z6 I% P3 qReferences…………………………………………………………….236# m$ c4 j" q! V; c
Appendix…………………………………………………………….. 237
" l; n F% j6 l; f5 {Index………………………………………………………………….241: w; }" H/ l% g- E6 s( i6 s7 j& Y; @
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Wind Energy_Fundamentals, Resource Analysis and Economics.part1.rar
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发表于 2009-2-17 13:33:10